1. 什麼叫水土資源
2 土壤侵蝕、水土流失與水土保持
水土資源是生物賴以生存與繁衍的重要的自然資源,與生物群落有著千絲萬縷的聯系,要探究水土資源與生物群落的互為促進作用,必須掌握土壤侵蝕 、水土流失、水土保持等一些最基本的概念;熟悉水土流失成因、水土流失特性以及水土流失狀況;了解土壤侵蝕、水土流失與水土保持相互間的內在聯系。
2.1 術語釋義
2.1.1土壤侵蝕 (soil erosion):在《中國大網路全書·水利卷》(1992.3)中對土壤侵蝕的定義為:土壤及其母質在水力、風力、凍融、重力等外營力作用下,被破壞、剝蝕、搬運和沉積的過程。這一定義與國際上是相近的。土壤流失(Soil loss)與土壤侵蝕基本上是同義語,土壤侵蝕側重於過程,而土壤流失則重於結果。在國際學術文獻中,目前更多地與水連用,稱為水土流失。
2.1.2水土流失(water and soil loss):在《中國水利網路全書·第一卷》(1990.12)中對水土流失的定義為:在水力、重力、風力等外營力作用下,水土資源和土地生產力的破壞和損失,包括土地表層侵蝕及水的損失,亦稱水土損失,這是廣義的水土流失。從宏觀上講,水土流失包括「土壤侵蝕」一詞的含義,且在生產上已習慣稱呼水土流失。狹義的水土流失,基於侵蝕主體,特指水力侵蝕;基於受侵主體,特指土壤侵蝕。
2.1.3水土保持(water and soil conservation):在《中國大網路全書·農業卷》(1990.9)中對水土保持的定義為:防治水土流失,保護、改良與合理利用山丘區和風沙區水土資源,維護和提高土地生產力,以利於充分發揮水土資源的經濟效益和社會效益,建立良好生態環境的事業。
2.2 土壤侵蝕與水土流失
2.2.1相關概念
2.2.1.1 土壤侵蝕類型
按外營力種類劃分:一種土壤侵蝕類型的發生往往是由一種或兩種外營力導致的。依據外營力的種類,將土壤侵蝕劃分為水力侵蝕、風力侵蝕、重力侵蝕、凍融侵蝕、混合侵蝕等類型。在各種土壤侵蝕類型中,水力侵蝕和風力侵蝕為面上侵蝕,是主要侵蝕類型;重力侵蝕、凍融侵蝕等為點上侵蝕,是次要侵蝕類型。
按發生時間劃分:按人類在地球上出現的時間,將土壤侵蝕劃分為古代侵蝕和現代侵蝕。現代侵蝕包括自然因素和人為因素的雙重作用。
按侵蝕速度劃分:按侵蝕速度比對成土速度(成土速率),將土壤侵蝕劃分為正常侵蝕和加速侵蝕。
2.2.1.2 土壤侵蝕量(the amount of soil erosion):是指土壤在外營力的作用下產生位移的物質量。
2.2.1.3 土壤侵蝕強度 (intensity of soil erosion):是指各種土壤侵蝕類型在單位時間內單位面積上的土壤侵蝕量或在單位時間內的土壤侵蝕深(厚)度。表示為土壤侵蝕速度(土壤侵蝕模數),單位 (t/km2.a 、t/hm2.a)或(mm/a)。
2.2.1.4 允許土壤侵蝕量(土壤容許流失量):是指小於或等於成土速度的年土壤侵蝕量。即在長時期內能保持土壤肥力和維持土地生產力基本穩定的最大土壤流失量。由於不同地區的成土速度不同,因此允許土壤侵蝕量也不同。小於允許土壤侵蝕量的侵蝕,屬正常侵蝕(微度侵蝕);大於或等於允許土壤侵蝕量的侵蝕,屬加速侵蝕(水土流失),在土壤侵蝕強度上分為輕度侵蝕、中度侵蝕、強度侵蝕、極強度侵蝕、劇烈侵蝕。
確定允許土壤流失量值是一項較為復雜的工作,目前各國確定的指標還有待完善,需要積累成土速度和土壤侵蝕對土壤生產能力影響等方面的資料。在美國規定各類地區的允許土壤流失量值為4~11.2t/hm2.a。中國也在不斷積累資料的基礎上,確定了不同地區的允許土壤流失量值為2~10t/hm2.a。
2.2.1.5 土壤侵蝕速率:是指有效土層厚度與年度侵蝕深度的比值,單位為年。用以評價一個地區的土壤抗侵蝕能力,反映出土壤侵蝕潛在危險程度。
2.2.1.6 侵蝕土壤程度:是指土壤遭受侵蝕的過程中所達到的不同階段,並不直接反映現狀侵蝕強度的大小。診斷侵蝕土壤程度,是根據土壤剖面中的表土層(A層)、心土層(B層)及母質層(C層)的喪失情況加以判別。侵蝕土壤程度反映土壤肥力和土地生產力現狀,為土地利用改良和防治土壤侵蝕提供科學依據。
土壤侵蝕強度反映了土壤流走的狀況,而侵蝕土壤程度則反映了侵蝕留下的狀況。
2.2.2中國水土流失現狀
根據全國第二次水土流失遙感調查,20世紀90年代末全國水土流失總面積356萬km2,占國土總面積的37.08%。其中水力侵蝕165萬km2;風力侵蝕191萬km2,包括水力侵蝕、風力侵蝕交錯區水土流失面積26萬km2。在水力侵蝕面積中,不同強度等級的面積為:輕度83萬km2,中度55萬km2,強度18萬km2,極強度6萬km2,劇烈3萬km2;在風力侵蝕面積中,不同強度等級的面積為:輕度79萬km2,中度25萬km2,強度25萬km2,極強度27萬km2,劇烈35萬km2。
2.2.3水力侵蝕地區的水土流失特性
水力侵蝕是水土流失的一種主要類型。山東全省水土流失面積35987km2,其中水蝕32432 km2,佔90.12%;風蝕3555 km2,佔9.88%。顯然,水土流失以水力侵蝕為主。
2.2.3.1 水力侵蝕特點:水力侵蝕的特點是以水為動力沖走土壤。既有土的流失(即土壤侵蝕),也有水的流失。
2.3.3.2 水力侵蝕形式:按水土流失的發生發展過程,將水力侵蝕劃分為面蝕和溝蝕兩種形式。
面蝕:是指地表徑流沖刷坡面表層土壤的一種侵蝕現象。它是土壤侵蝕中最常見的一種形式。面蝕起源於濺蝕,發生在坡面,呈面狀,可分為層狀面蝕、鱗片狀面蝕、沙粒化面蝕和細溝狀面蝕。
溝蝕:是指由片狀水流匯集於溝槽,形成切入地表及以下溝壑,沖刷破壞土壤及其母質的土壤侵蝕形式。溝蝕起源於面蝕,發生在溝壑,呈線狀。面蝕產生的細溝,以溝頭前進、溝底下切和溝岸擴張三種方式,分別向長、寬、深三個方向發展,形成侵蝕溝。根據溝蝕程度及表現形態,自上而下可分為淺溝侵蝕、切溝侵蝕和沖溝侵蝕。
2.2.3.3 水土流失成因
影響水土流失的因素有自然的、也有人為的,有有利的、也有不利的。人類自在地球上出現以來,就不斷對自然界施加影響,使自然侵蝕過程受到人為因素的干擾。在水力侵蝕地區,降雨(外營力)、土壤、地形(地形為地面起伏的形狀,地貌為地球表面的形態。地理學上二者等同,測繪學上地形是地貌和地物的總稱)、植被四項自然因素直接影響水土流失,人為因素則通過改變自然因素影響水土流失。不合理的人類活動是土壤侵蝕加速的主導因素。
自然因素中降雨是侵蝕的動力,動力的大小決定著侵蝕的強弱;土壤既是被侵蝕的對象又是影響徑流的因素,腐殖質含量高,膠結物質多,團粒結構穩定的土壤,抗蝕性強;地形中不同的坡度、坡長、坡形及坡面糙率決定著坡面徑流的匯集和能量的轉化;地表植被能夠防止雨滴擊濺表土,並以其根系直接固持土體,且枯枝落葉及其形成的物質能夠改變地表徑流,促進土壤滲蓄。
水力侵蝕地區的水土保持科技工作者應注重對流體動力學的研究,了解地表徑流的流速、流量,熟悉其發生、發展和消亡規律,掌握降雨、地形、植被、土壤對地表徑流的影響。
2.3 水土流失和水土保持
水土流失(Soil and Water Losses )和水土保持(Soil and Water Conservation)是兩個相對的概念,雖然未在國際經典辭書上找到專門簡明釋意條目,但根據一些國際學術專著,它們的意義也是比較明確的。
水土流失是指土壤侵蝕(包括水、風等營力)造成水土資源和土地生產力的破壞和損失。水土保持的含義則是為防治水土流失、保護和合理利用水土資源、提高土地生產力而採取的全部措施的總稱。
與土壤流失或土壤侵蝕相比,在應用水土流失概念時,水不僅是作為引起土壤侵蝕的營力,同時也是作為農業生產的資源要素。從農業生產角度講,土壤侵蝕不僅造成土壤及其養分的流失,也造成土壤水分和水資源的流失或損失。水的損失在國外一些國家的水土保持文獻中是指植物截留損失、地面及水面蒸發損失、植物蒸騰損失、深層滲漏損失、坡面徑流損失。在我國,水的損失主要指坡地徑流損失。水的損失在乾旱、半乾旱地區加重了乾旱,加重了乾旱對農業、林業、牧業等生產事業的危害。
3 生態系統與水土資源
水是生命之源,土是生存之本。水和土是人類賴以生存和發展的基本條件,是不可替代的基礎資源。地球上真正能被人類直接利用的水資源,僅佔全球水貯量的0.3%。當今世界水資源短缺,我國人均水資源擁有量僅佔世界平均水平的1/4左右,是世界水資源極度缺乏的國家之一。水資源的匱乏已經制約了中國生態環境建設,影響了中國經濟和社會的可持續發展;土地資源是人類生產活動最基本的自然資源和勞動對象。人類對土地的利用雖然反映了人類文明的發展,但也造成了對土地資源的直接破壞,主要表現為不合理的人類活動引起的土壤退化。這之中水土流失是禍首,是當今世界面臨的嚴重問題。
3.1 水資源
水土流失減少水資源可利用量。
水土保持是江河治理的根本,是水資源利用和保護的源頭和基礎,是與水資源管理互為促進、緊密結合的有機整體。水土保持措施一是坡面滲蓄、工程攔蓄天上水,使地表淡水向土體深層轉化,並保持在地下,在無雨時節,上游山丘區的地下水因靠高差形成的勢能,能夠轉換為下游平原區的地表水。二是減少水庫、江河淤積,使水利工程延長壽命,增加效益,減輕防洪負擔。三是避免點源和非點源(面源)污染通過徑流匯入受納水體,減輕水體富營養化及其它形式的污染。這一切都有利於水資源的開發利用和水環境的保護,都是建設景觀水利、營造親水空間的基礎。
3.2 土地資源
水土流失對土地資源的破壞表現在外營力對土壤及其母質的分散、剝離以及搬運和沉積上。由於雨滴擊濺、雨水沖刷土壤,把坡面切割得支離破碎,溝壑縱橫。上游土壤經分散、剝離,砂礫顆粒殘積在地表細,小顆粒不斷被水沖走,沿途沉積,下游遭受水沖砂壓。如此反復,細土變少,砂礫變多,土壤沙化,肥力降低,質地變粗,土層變薄,土壤面積減少,裸岩面積增加,最終導致棄耕,成為「荒山荒坡」。
我國人口眾多,可開發利用的土地資源十分有限,能夠耕種的土地則尤為珍貴,而每年卻因土壤退化損失耕地46.6~53.3萬hm2,因自然災害喪失耕地約10萬hm2,成為世界上水土流失最為嚴重的國家之一。耕地面積在逐年減少,人口卻每年增加1400萬,這兩個逆向增長如繼續下去,人地矛盾將更加突出。由於水土流失與土壤退化日趨嚴重,生物的生存空間日益縮小,已經帶給我們極大的危害,影響了經濟社會的可持續發展。為了民族的生存、人民的幸福和國家的繁榮昌盛,全社會每個成員都應當高度重視水土流失這個頭號環境問題,珍惜、保護和合理利用好水土資源,防止人為活動造成新的水土流失。
水土保持是國土整治的根本。保護珍貴的土地資源免受外力侵蝕,既是水土保持的基本內涵,也是土地資源利用和保護的主要內容。從保護土地資源、減輕土壤退化的角度上講,水土保持對土地資源的利用和保護有著積極的促進作用,是土地資源利用和保護的基礎。
古今中外大量事實表明,人類不合理的開發建設活動必然導致嚴重的水土流失,導致生態環境惡化,最終引發人類生存與發展危機。隨著經濟社會的發展和人類開發建設活動規模的不斷擴大,人為破壞生態所造成的水土流失問題越來越嚴重,對生態環境的影響也越來越大。因此,必須堅持「預防為主」的方針,始終把預防監督放在水土保持工作的首位;在此基礎上,綜合治理自然水土流失,不斷改善生產條件和生態環境。只有這樣,才能從源頭上控制住人為水土流失,才能抓住水土保持的根本,才能使水土保持生態環境建設既經濟、又有效,達到了事半功倍的效果。
3.3 生態系統與水土資源
生態系統的平衡往往是大自然經過了很長時間才建立起來的動態平衡。一旦受到破壞,有些平衡就無法重建了,帶來的惡果可能是人的努力無法彌補的。因此人類要尊重生態平衡,維護生態平衡,而絕不可輕易地去破壞它。
水和土地都是不可替代的珍貴的地質資源。水土流失對水土資源的破壞,使生物生存的環境惡化,物種減少。水土流失威脅城鎮,破壞交通,危及工礦設施和下游地區生產建設和人民生命財產的安全, 1998年長江、嫩江、松花江流域暴發特大洪水災害,使1.8億人受災,因水死亡4150人,直接經濟損失2550.9億元;近年來北方地區連續遭受沙塵暴襲擊以及發生在首都北京(2004年7月10日)和濟南等地區的城市積水,追根溯源,都與水土流失相關,都是水土流失的惡果。
水土流失流走的是沃土,流下的是貧瘠。在水土流失嚴重地區,地力衰退,產量下降,形成「越窮越墾、越墾越窮」的惡性循環。目前全國農村貧困人口90%以上都生活在生態環境比較惡劣的水土流失地區。
水土流失是我國面臨的頭號環境問題,是我國生態環境惡化的主要特徵,是貧困的根源。要解決這一問題,爭取繼續生存、繼續發展的權利,必須調整好人類、環境與發展三者之間的關系,特別是要調整好經濟發展的模式。保持水土,根除災害,時不我待,刻不容緩,應該呼籲全社會都來關心。
水土保持既是生態環境建設的主體,也是生態環境建設的基礎,處在生態環境建設的前沿。生態系統的穩定性在很大程度上取決於自然界中的水土資源條件;經濟社會發展引起生態環境的變化,主要取決於對水土資源的利用。正基於此,水土流失才成為我國的頭號環境問題,水土保持才被作為我國必須長期堅持的一項基本國策。
2. soilworks直徑60貫穿怎麼標注
畫好對稱軸的情況下,智能尺寸——點擊第一個點到對稱線的距離(不直接點直線的長度),滑鼠移動到對稱軸的另一側就會顯示「對稱情況下的亂猛總長」,然後點擊一下滑鼠左鍵,即可形成尺寸。在尺寸前放一個直徑符號就行。
1、第一步:打開一個2D草圖。
2、第二步:點擊菜單欄中的「草圖」,找到「智能尺寸」。
3、第三步:點擊「智能尺寸」,選擇一條需要標注尺寸的邊。
4、第四步:標注完成,點擊左上角的「√」。
5、第五步:修改標注尺寸,左鍵雙擊標注中的數字。
6、第六步:知陪局修改搭讓左邊窗口的「標注尺寸文字」,輸入需要修改的數字。這樣尺寸就修改完成了。
3. FastDNA03 SPIN kit for Soil 實驗操作步驟說明 怎樣去除腐植酸
試劑准備:
1. 使用前先在SEWS-M Wash Solution中加入100 ml 100%的乙醇,混勻。在瓶子上做好標記,密閉儲存於室溫條件。
提取步驟:
1. 在樣品處理管E中加入至多500 mg的土壤樣品
2. 將978 μl的Sodium Phosphate Buffer加入到樣品處理管E中
3. 再加入122 μl的 MT Buffer
(為了得到良好的樣品處理效果,請在加入土壤樣品及兩個緩沖液後,在樣品處理管中仍能保留有250 – 500μl 空間)
4. 將樣品置於FastPrep® 儀器上,樣品處理條件一般為,時間:40秒,速度:6.0
(如果樣品需要額外的處理時間,請在間隔期將樣品處理管在冰上孵育至少2分鍾,以免樣品過熱)
5. 14,000 x g離心5~10分鍾
(如果把離心時間延長到15分鍾,可以更好地使樣品量較大的;或者細胞壁結構較復雜的細胞的碎片沉降到管底)
6. 將上清轉移到一個干凈的2.0 ml離心管中。加入250μL的PPS溶液(蛋白質沉澱溶液),用手搖晃10次,使之充分的混合。
7. 14,000 x g離心5分鍾,將上清轉移到一個干凈的15ml管中
(此處也可使用2Ml管,但使用大管子能獲得更好的混合和DNA綁定效果)
8. 重懸硅珠(Binding Matrix)溶液,將1.0 ml重懸液加入該15ml管中。
9. 使用振盪器或者手動震盪2分鍾,將DNA綁定在硅珠上。將管子置於管架上,靜置3分鍾,使硅珠沉澱下來。
10. 小心地移除500μl的上清液,避免吸取到沉澱下來的硅珠。
11. 將硅珠在剩餘的上清液中重懸。轉移約600μl的重懸液至SPIN™ Filter中,14,000 x g離心1分鍾。棄去接液管中的廢液,將15ml管中剩餘的重懸液轉移到SPIN™ Filter再次離心棄去廢液。
12. 加入500 μl事先准備好的SEWS-M溶液,用槍頭輕輕吹打,小心地重懸沉澱。
13. 14,000 x g離心1分鍾,棄去廢液。
14. 不加其他溶液,將SPIN™ Filter 14,000 x g離心2分鍾,除去殘留的SEWS-M溶液。棄去接液管,更換一個新的、干凈的離心管。
15. 將SPIN™ Filter置於室溫下晾乾5分鍾
16.輕輕地用50-100 μl 的DES溶液(或者無菌/無DNA酶的水)重懸SPIN filter上的硅珠
(為了避免過度稀釋純化出的DNA,請盡量減少DES溶液的量,55˚C孵育5分鍾能幫助提高純化產物的得率)
17. 14,000 x g離心1分鍾使溶解的DNA轉移到接液管中。棄去SPIN™ Filter
(得到的純化產物可直接用於PCR等其他下游的操作,4°C使用前保存或者-20°C長期保存。)
技術優勢
1. 能有效的處理土壤樣品中一些很難處理的組分如: 真細菌孢子(eubacterial spores)、內芽孢(endospores)、格蘭仕陽性菌(gram positive bacteria)、酵母(yeast)、線蟲(nematodes)、海藻(algea)、真菌(fungi)等。
2. 樣品處理過程中使用的 MT Buffer和Sodium Phosphate Buffer可在整個提取過程中有效的保護核酸,並最大限度的降低RNA污染。
3. 基於硅珠的純化方法,可有效地去除腐植酸、多元酚等PCR抑制物
4. 純化所得的DNA可直接用於PCR、酶切都後續實驗之中。
5. 對腐植酸含量特別高的樣品,附加額外的處理方法。
註:對於去除腐植酸的方法
在使用以下任何一種方法之前,請預先准備5.5M的異硫氰酸胍(Guanidine Thiocyanate)溶液
方法A:
1.當操作到土壤DNA提取試劑盒的第九步時,使用14,000 x g (~約5秒)的短時離心替代硅珠的自然沉降,移除上清。
2.用1ml事先准備好的異硫氰酸胍溶液洗滌、重懸硅珠。
3.14,000 x g (~約5秒)短時離心該離心管,除去上清。
4.重復上述的洗滌步驟,直到硅珠恢復到原先的顏色。
5.最後一次洗滌之後,用1ml的異硫氰酸胍溶液重懸硅珠,將600µl重懸液轉移到SPIN filter里,14,000 x g離心1分鍾。
6.移除接液管中的廢液,將剩餘的重懸液轉移至SPIN filter里,14,000 x g離心1分鍾,棄去廢液。
7.從提取試劑盒操作說明的第十二步開始繼續操作。
方法B:
1.將下列成分混合於1.5ml的離心管中,組成腐植酸洗滌液:
978 μl Sodium Phosphate Buffer
122 μl MT Buffer
250 μl PPS
2.充分混勻後,全速離心1分鍾,將上清轉移到一個新的離心管中(容量大於或等於2ml)
3.加入等體積的5.5M的異硫氰酸胍溶液、混勻。
4.完成了土壤試劑盒操作說明中的第九步後,將500μl的腐植酸洗滌液加入SPIN filter
5.14,000 x g離心1分鍾,棄去廢液。
6.重復上述的洗滌步驟,直到硅珠恢復到原先的顏色。
7.從提取試劑盒操作說明的第十二步開始繼續操作
4. soil mite 是什麼動物或微生物啊
土壤蟎
來自動物學詞典(Zoology Dictionary)
5. 英語 真土 怎麼說
真土的英文:Genuine soil
soil讀法 英[sɔɪl]美[sɔɪl]
n.土答態地;土壤;污物,糞便
v.弄污
例句
1、This soil is good for growing things.
這種土壤適宜種植莊稼。
2、She makes her living from the soil.
她依靠土地謀生。
短語
1、heavy soil 難耕地
2、hungry soil 瘠土
3、light-coloured soil 淺色土壤
4、packed soil 壓得堅實的土壤
5、poor soil 貧瘠的土地

(5)神馬電影soil6擴展閱讀
詞語用法
1、soil的意思是「泥土,土壤,土地」,本意指可生長植物的「土壤」「土地」,屬地球表面的一部分,也可作「領土」「故土」解,還可引申為「滋生地」「臟東西」,是不可數名詞。
2、soil作「某種土壤」解時是可數名詞。
3、soil主要用作及物動詞,作「(使)…弄臟」解,接名詞、代詞作賓語。偶爾可毀檔用作不及物動詞,這時主動形式含有被動意清余源義。
4、soil的過去分詞soiled常用作形容詞作定語。
詞彙搭配
1、proctive soil 肥沃的土壤
2、rich soil 沃土
3、sandy soil 沙土
4、soft soil 軟土
5、workable soil 可耕作的土地
6、foreign soil 異國他鄉
6. I had set foot on African soil為什麼不直接I set foot on African soil
這是時態的問題,
用had set 是辯則過去完成時。had +過去分詞 是過去完成時,具體用法如下:
用set是一般現在時或過去時 set- set-set set的過去式和過去分詞都與原形一樣
have、has+過去分詞 是現在完成時,具體用法如下
現在完成時:攜告棚1.表示從過去某一事件發生到現在或將繼續持續下去2.過去發生的事對現在造成的影響3.表示現在已經完成的動作4.構成 主語+have/has +動詞友升的過去分詞.過去完成時用法講解
1、概述
過去完成時表示過去某一時間或動作以前已經發生或完成了的動作。它表示動作發生的時間是「過去的過去」。表示過去某一時間可用by, before等構成的短語,也可用when, before等引導的從句或通過上下代表示。
His eyes shone brightly when he finally received the magazine he had long expected. 當她終於收到她盼望已久的雜志時,她興奮得兩眼閃光。
By the time he was twelve, Edison had begun to make a living by himself.12歲時,愛迪生就開始自己謀生。
2、構成
過去完成時由「助動詞had+過去分詞」構成。其否定式、肯定式、疑問式如下表:
肯定式 否定式 疑問式
I(we) I(We) you
You had read it. had not read it Had they read it?
He(She, They) He(She ,They) he
注意:had not 常簡略為hadn't。
They asked me to have a drink with them and said it was at least ten years since I had enjoyed a good drink. 他們請我和他們一起喝酒,並說我自上次喝酒到現在至少十年了。
We had learnt 30 lessons by the end of last month.到上個月末為止,我們已經學了30課。
He said we hadn』t seen each other since I left Beijing.自從我離開北京,我們還沒見過面。
3、過去完成時的用法
過去完成時的主要用法和現在完成時一樣。不同的是,過去完成時把時間推移到了過去某一時間之前,與現在無關。
(1)過去完成時表示在過去某一時間或動作以前已經完成了的動作。這個過去的時間狀語有by, before等介詞短語或when, before等引導的從句。
Helen had left her keys in the office so she had to wait until her husband came home. 海倫把鑰匙忘到辦公室里了,因此她不得不等她丈夫回來。
When we got to the cinema, the film had already begun.當我們到達電影院時,電影已經開始了。
He told me that he had visited the Great Wall before.他告訴我他以前參觀過長城。
By the end of the match, they had kicked 2 goals, and we had kicked 4.比賽結束時,他們踢進了2個球而我們踢進了4個球。
When Jack arrived he learned Mary had been away for almost an hour.傑克到達後得知瑪麗走了近一個小時了。
(2)表示動作在過去某一時間之前開始,一直延續到過去的這一時間,而且還可能繼續下去的動作,常和for, since構成的短語或引導的從句連用。
The news came as no surprise to me. I had known for some time that the factory was going to shut down. 聽到這個消息我並不感到吃驚。工廠要倒閉這件事我早就知道了。
By the time I left the school, he had taught the class for 3 years.到我畢業時,他已經教那個班三年了。
He said he had made great progress since he came here.他說自從他來這里他已經取得了很大進步。
(3)用於表示與過去事實相反的虛擬條件從句或as if從句中表示與過去事實相反
If he had seen you yesterday, he would have asked you about it.假如他昨天看到你,他就會問你這件事了。
I should have called you if I had known your telephone number.假如我過去知道你的電話號碼,我就給你打電話了。
He described the scene as if he had been there.他描繪的景色如同他去過那裡一樣。
Had I known that you wanted the book, I would have sent it.如果我知道你要這本書,我會送來的。
(4)表示假設的賓語從句
放在像said,told,asked,thought,wondered等過去時動詞的後面,表示在這些動作發生之前已經發生了的事情。
My friend told me that he had passed the exam.我的朋友告訴我,他已通過了考試。
He asked me whether I had seen the film the night before.他問我頭一天晚上是否看過那部電影。
She wondered who had left the door open.她想知道誰敞著門的。
(5)用在 "It was the first/second/third…time that…」句型中
在此句型中,主句用了一般過去時,that引導的定語從句要用過去完成時。
This was the first time they had met in thirty-nine years. 這是39年裡他們第一次見面。
It was the first time we had spoken together. 這是我們第一次在一起說話。
(6)intend, mean, hope, want, plan, suppose, expect, think等動詞的過去完成時可以表示一個本來打算做而沒有做的事
這種結構也可以表示過去未曾實現的設想、意圖或希望等,含有某種惋惜。
I had intended to call on you yesterday, but I had an unexpected visitor.我本來昨天打算要去看你,但我來了個不速之客。
We had meant to tell her the news but found that she wasn』t in.我們本想把這個消息告訴她的,但發現她不在家。
(7)過去完成時常用結構有「hardly, scarcely, barely … when, no sooner… than等副詞的句子里。
She hardly had gone to bed when the bell rang.他剛睡下鈴就響了。
No sooner had they left the building than a bomb exploded.他們剛剛離開大樓,一顆炸彈就爆炸了。
(8)當before , after, as soon as 等引導的從句里的動作與主句的動作緊接時,由於這些連詞本身已經說明了兩個動作發生的先後關系,因此兩個動作均可用一般過去時表示。
We had breakfast after we did morning exercises.做完早操之後,我們吃早飯。
The train started to move just before we reached the station.我們到車站時火車剛開動。
As soon as they got there, they started to study.他們一到那裡就開始學習了。
7. If there had not been a hard layer of rock beneath the soil 這句話為什麼要用過去完成時呢
這是表示與過去事實相反虛擬絕扒語氣在條件狀語從句中的動詞形式【had+過去分詞】, 不是過去完成時, 盡管形式一樣
不信你接著看後面的主悄握句,裡面的動啟宏慶詞形式就是【would + have + 過去分詞】
【希望幫助到你,若有疑問,可以追問~~~
祝你學習進步,更上一層樓!(*^__^*)】
8. Soil Nailing
Introction. Soil nailing consists of reinforcing the soil mass by the introction of a series of thin elements called nails to resist tension,bending and shear forces. The reinforcing elements are made of steel round cross-section bars. Nails are installed sub-horizontally into the soil mass in a pre-bored hole,which is grouted. Figure 13. 1 shows typical applications in slopes and excavations.
Figure 13. 1 Typical applications for an existing slope or an excavation
Origin. Soil nailing is a shotcrete support tunnelling method developed in the late 1960s( Figure 13. 2) ,which consisting of the use of a flexible lining that enables soil deformation around the excavation which has been reinforced by means of bolting or nailing. An active zone is formed around the excavation and the lining is consequently subjected to reced loading. This technique contrasts with the traditional tunnelling technique where a rigid lining was employed to prevent soil deformation and was subjected to full loading from ground pressures.
Figure 13. 2 Conceptual differences between rigid and flexible tunnel lining
Experience in resials and saprolitic soils. The soil nailing construction sequence is similar to the Brazilian practice with tieback walls. They are constructed from the top with excavation stages ranging from 1 to 2 m. Thousands of such structures have been constructed throughout Brazil to stabilize slopes in resial soils,as reported by Ortigao et al.
The Geotechnical Engineering Office ( GEO) of Hong Kong extensively uses soil nailing to stabilize man made slopes in resial and saprolitic soils. The only types of soils that soil nailing cannot be applied are very loose sands and very soft clays.
Construction method and soil nailing application. Soil nailing walls have been employed to stabilize natural slopes or excavations. In this case,the reinforcement is installed in stages as the excavation progresses, typically in 1 to 2 m deep excavation stages. The maximum excavation depth in each stage depends on the soil type and the inclination of the slope,which must be kept stable ring the stage of excavation,until the reinforcement is in place and starts to mobilise its effects.
Installation of nails. Nails should be installed soon after excavation by driving or drilling. Nail driving has been in use for years for stabilizing the faces of tunnels in soils. Short nails, usually up to 3 m in length,are driven by percussion employing hand operated pneumatic hammers. This technique has been applied in temporary walls but should not be applicable to permanent structures e to lack of corrosion protection.
Nail driving is inadequate in soils containing boulders,in most hard resial soils and in all permanent structures, because the steel bar is unprotected against corrosion. Another disadvantage is the resulting lowsoil-nail friction,which ranges from 30 to 40 kPa in sands and with even lower values in clays.
The most common technique is similar to the installation of soil anchors,i. e. ,by drilling a 50 to 100 mm diameter hole,introcing a 20 to 32 mm diameter steel bar,followed by lowpressure grouting. This process leads to reasonably high unit soil-nail friction in which values greater than 100 kPa can easily be obtained in most soils.
Nail head details. Figure 13. 3 presents details of the nail heads for vertical or near vertical walls. In this case,the torque applied to the bolt and nut system applies a small loading of the order of 5 kN to each nail in order to maintain contact of the facing against the soil.
Figure 13. 3 Nail heads details for vertical or near vertical walls
In the stabilization of inclined slopes in which small diameter nails ( less than 20 mm in diameter) are used,a second type shown in Figure 13. 4a is frequently preferred. The steel bar is laterally bent at right angles to anchor the mesh and shotcrete.
Figure 13. 4b shows details of the nail head extensively used in Hong Kong for inclined slopes. The nail head is embedded in a cast-in-place concrete plate excavated in niche behind the slope face.
Figure 13. 4 Nail head details for inclined slopes
The slope facing. Shotcrete is the standard type of facing in soil-nailed structures,contrary to most tieback walls where standard concrete is utilized. Shotcrete can be applied through dry or wet mix. For small jobs,such as soil nailed walls,the dry mix is preferred.
The thickness of the facing varies between 50 to 150 mm with one or two steel meshes embedded in the shotcrete. Thinner facings are generally used on inclined slopes; thicker,for vertical permanent excavations.
In the last years there has been a considerable progress in the use of steel fibre reinforced shotcrete ( SFRS) ,which presents advantages in relation to the use of mesh reinforcement.
Fibres are high tensile strength steel elements having 30 - 50 mm in length and 0. 5 mm in diameter with hooked ends that are mixed in the concrete as an aggregate with a dosage in the range of 35 to 60 kg / m3. It can be used in either dry or wet sprayed concrete mix. Fibres have no effect in the compressive strength of the concrete,but increase ctility,enabling to take into account flexural tensile strength. The final SFRS proct is a homogeneous material with increased crack and corrosion resistance. SFRS saves labour for mesh placement and saves total concrete volume in relation to mesh-reinforced shotcrete. SFRS complies with soil or rock surface irregularities,saving total concrete volume,as compared to the use of a steel mesh. It is expected that SFRS will replace most steel meshes today employed for slope stabilization and soil nailing.
Comparison with tieback walls. Although there are some similarities in the construction technique between a soil nailed and a tieback wall,significant conceptual differences exist,as shown in Figure 13. 5. Anchors are pre-stressed with high loads that may vary between 150 to 400 kN,while on nails only a very small pre-tension of the order of 5 to 10 kN is applied to ensure contact of the facing against the soil behind.
Anchors have a free length,in contrast to nails which transfer load by friction against the soil along their entire length.
Figure 13. 5 Comparison between tieback and soil nailed wall Tmax—Maximum tension force
The concrete facing of a tieback wall is in general 200 to 300 mm thick,being designed to support high anchor loads. On the other hand,loads on the facing applied by nails are much smaller leading to thinner facings.
Most tieback walls in Brazil are designed with a vertical facing to avoid problems that may occur when pouring concrete in inclined formwork. Shotcreting,on the other hand,can be accomplished in any direction. It is,therefore,possible to take advantage of the existing slope and to design inclined soil nailed wall. This may rece excavations.
The length of nails is 60% to 120% of the depth of a vertical excavation. Soil anchors tend to be longer.
Most failures in resial soils take place in shallowdepths,and soil nailing together with deep and surface drainage can be a very economical solution. However,there are a fewcases in which the failure surface is so deep that it may be more appropriate to employ long soil anchors.
Comparison with reinforced walls. Soil nailing is conceptually very similar to geosynthetic reinforced walls or the reinforced earth technique. The main difference is in the construction process. Soil nailed walls are constructed from the top down, whereas geosynthetic or reinforced earth walls are constructed upwards. This leads to a different pattern of soil displacements,as shown in Figure 13. 6.
Figure 13. 6 Comparison between soil nailing and reinforced earth
Advantages of soil nailing. Soil nailing presents the following advantages that has contributed to the widespread of this technique in several countries:
·Economy: economical evaluation of a fewprojects has led to the conclusion that soil nailing is definitely a cost-effective technique as compared with a tieback wall. Cost of soil nailing may be 50% of a tieback wall.
·Rate of construction: fast rates of construction can be achieved if adequate drilling equipment is employed. Shotcrete is also a rapid technique for placement of the facing.
·Facing inclination: as mentioned before,the use of shotcrete easily accommodates an inclined facing,with benefits to overall stability. Backwards inclination of the facing also reces shotcrete losses e to rebound.
·Deformation behaviour: observation of actual nailed structures demonstrated that horizontal deformation at the top of the wall ranges from 0. 1% to 0. 3% of the wall height for well designed walls.
·Design flexibility: a flexible soil nailed wall can be incorporated with soil anchors in order to limit deformation in the vicinity of existing structures or foundations.
·Design reliability in saprolitic soils: saprolitic soils frequently present relict weak surfaces which can be undetected ring site investigation. Soil nailing across these surfaces may lead to an increased factor of safety and increased reliability,as compared with other stabilization solutions.
Limitations of soil nailing. Soil nailing technique mobilizes soil strength and the soil mass deforms,leading to displacements in the surroundings of the wall. This can bring unacceptable deformation to a sensitive structure in the vicinity of the wall. Placement of the shotcrete requires that the excavated face be free-standing for a period of time. Corrosion protection requires careful attention in aggressive environments.
Examples of soil nailing.
In 1984,at Icaraf Beach,a 35 m high vertical cut in gneiss saprolites was constructed for the construction of a high apartment building. A tieback wall with soil anchors supported the lower 18 m of the cut. The upper wall consisted of a soil-nailed structure inclined 75° backwards with 6 to 9 m long,25 mm diameter,steel bar nails in 90 mm diameter boreholes. The spacing was 1. 5 m in both vertical and horizontal directions. The shotcrete facing was 150 mm thick,reinforced with two steel meshes.
At the end of the construction a fewcracks were observed at the crest of the slope. They were filled with cement grout and no additional signs of deformation were observed.
Slope stabilization in phyllite at the abutment of a railway bridge. Figure 13. 7 shows a 26 m high railway bridge abutment that was stabilized by nailing. Local soils consisted of severely structured phyllites with bedding planes dipping in the direction of the slope. Soil wedge failures occurred and led to the decision to stabilize it by 25 mm diameter steel bar nails in 75 mm diameter boreholes. Vertical spacing was 2 m and horizontal spacing was 2. 5 m. Nail length varied from 10 to 25 m. The shotcrete facing was inclined backwards at an angle of 75° and its thickness was 50 mm.
Figure 13. 7 Slope stabilization by nailing at a railway abutment in phyllites,Sao Paulo,Brazil
